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<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.1//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml11/DTD/xhtml11.dtd">
<html>
<head>
<title>Stacker: An Example Of Using LLVM</title>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="llvm.css" type="text/css">
</head>
<body>
<div class="doc_title">Stacker: An Example Of Using LLVM</div>
<ol>
<li><a href="#abstract">Abstract</a></li>
<li><a href="#introduction">Introduction</a></li>
<li><a href="#lexicon">The Stacker Lexicon</a>
<ol>
<li><a href="#stack">The Stack</a>
<li><a href="#punctuation">Punctuation</a>
<li><a href="#literals">Literals</a>
<li><a href="#words">Words</a>
<li><a href="#builtins">Built-Ins</a>
</ol>
</li>
<li><a href="#directory">The Directory Structure </a>
</ol>
<div class="doc_text">
<p><b>Written by <a href="mailto:rspencer@x10sys.com">Reid Spencer</a> </b></p>
<p> </p>
</div>
<!-- ======================================================================= -->
<div class="doc_section"> <a name="abstract">Abstract </a></div>
<div class="doc_text">
<p>This document is another way to learn about LLVM. Unlike the
<a href="LangRef.html">LLVM Reference Manual</a> or
<a href="ProgrammersManual.html">LLVM Programmer's Manual</a>, this
document walks you through the implementation of a programming language
named Stacker. Stacker was invented specifically as a demonstration of
LLVM. The emphasis in this document is not on describing the
intricacies of LLVM itself, but on how to use it to build your own
compiler system.</p>
</div>
<!-- ======================================================================= -->
<div class="doc_section"> <a name="introduction">Introduction</a> </div>
<div class="doc_text">
<p>Amongst other things, LLVM is a platform for compiler writers.
Because of its exceptionally clean and small IR (intermediate
representation), compiler writing with LLVM is much easier than with
other system. As proof, the author of Stacker wrote the entire
compiler (language definition, lexer, parser, code generator, etc.) in
about <em>four days</em>! That's important to know because it shows
how quickly you can get a new
language up when using LLVM. Furthermore, this was the <em >first</em>
language the author ever created using LLVM. The learning curve is
included in that four days.</p>
<p>The language described here, Stacker, is Forth-like. Programs
are simple collections of word definitions and the only thing definitions
can do is manipulate a stack or generate I/O. Stacker is not a "real"
programming language; its very simple. Although it is computationally
complete, you wouldn't use it for your next big project. However,
the fact that it is complete, its simple, and it <em>doesn't</em> have
a C-like syntax make it useful for demonstration purposes. It shows
that LLVM could be applied to a wide variety of language syntaxes.</p>
<p>The basic notions behind stacker is very simple. There's a stack of
integers (or character pointers) that the program manipulates. Pretty
much the only thing the program can do is manipulate the stack and do
some limited I/O operations. The language provides you with several
built-in words that manipulate the stack in interesting ways. To get
your feet wet, here's how you write the traditional "Hello, World"
program in Stacker:</p>
<p><code>: hello_world "Hello, World!" >s DROP CR ;<br>
: MAIN hello_world ;<br></code></p>
<p>This has two "definitions" (Stacker manipulates words, not
functions and words have definitions): <code>MAIN</code> and <code>
hello_world</code>. The <code>MAIN</code> definition is standard, it
tells Stacker where to start. Here, <code>MAIN</code> is defined to
simply invoke the word <code>hello_world</code>. The
<code>hello_world</code> definition tells stacker to push the
<code>"Hello, World!"</code> string onto the stack, print it out
(<code>>s</code>), pop it off the stack (<code>DROP</code>), and
finally print a carriage return (<code>CR</code>). Although
<code>hello_world</code> uses the stack, its net effect is null. Well
written Stacker definitions have that characteristic. </p>
<p>Exercise for the reader: how could you make this a one line program?</p>
</div>
<!-- ======================================================================= -->
<div class="doc_section"><a name="stack"></a>Lessons Learned About LLVM</div>
<div class="doc_text">
<p>Stacker was written for two purposes: (a) to get the author over the
learning curve and (b) to provide a simple example of how to write a compiler
using LLVM. During the development of Stacker, many lessons about LLVM were
learned. Those lessons are described in the following subsections.<p>
</div>
<div class="doc_subsection"><a name="linkage"></a>Getting Linkage Types Right</div>
<div class="doc_text"><p>To be completed.</p></div>
<div class="doc_subsection"><a name="linkage"></a>Everything's a Value!</div>
<div class="doc_text"><p>To be completed.</p></div>
<div class="doc_subsection"><a name="linkage"></a>The Wily GetElementPtrInst</div>
<div class="doc_text"><p>To be completed.</p></div>
<div class="doc_subsection"><a name="linkage"></a>Constants Are Easier Than That!</div>
<div class="doc_text"><p>To be completed.</p></div>
<div class="doc_subsection"><a name="linkage"></a>Terminate Those Blocks!</div>
<div class="doc_text"><p>To be completed.</p></div>
<div class="doc_subsection"><a name="linkage"></a>new,get,create .. Its All The Same</div>
<div class="doc_text"><p>To be completed.</p></div>
<div class="doc_subsection"><a name="linkage"></a>Utility Functions To The Rescue</div>
<div class="doc_text"><p>To be completed.</p></div>
<div class="doc_subsection"><a name="linkage"></a>push_back Is Your Friend</div>
<div class="doc_text"><p>To be completed.</p></div>
<div class="doc_subsection"><a name="linkage"></a>Block Heads Come First</div>
<div class="doc_text"><p>To be completed.</p></div>
<!-- ======================================================================= -->
<div class="doc_section"> <a name="lexicon">The Stacker Lexicon</a></div>
<div class="doc_subsection"><a name="stack"></a>The Stack</div>
<div class="doc_text">
<p>Stacker definitions define what they do to the global stack. Before
proceeding, a few words about the stack are in order. The stack is simply
a global array of 32-bit integers or pointers. A global index keeps track
of the location of the to of the stack. All of this is hidden from the
programmer but it needs to be noted because it is the foundation of the
conceptual programming model for Stacker. When you write a definition,
you are, essentially, saying how you want that definition to manipulate
the global stack.</p>
<p>Manipulating the stack can be quite hazardous. There is no distinction
given and no checking for the various types of values that can be placed
on the stack. Automatic coercion between types is performed. In many
cases this is useful. For example, a boolean value placed on the stack
can be interpreted as an integer with good results. However, using a
word that interprets that boolean value as a pointer to a string to
print out will almost always yield a crash. Stacker simply leaves it
to the programmer to get it right without any interference or hindering
on interpretation of the stack values. You've been warned :) </p>
</div>
<!-- ======================================================================= -->
<div class="doc_subsection"> <a name="punctuation"></a>Punctuation</div>
<div class="doc_text">
<p>Punctuation in Stacker is very simple. The colon and semi-colon
characters are used to introduce and terminate a definition
(respectively). Except for <em>FORWARD</em> declarations, definitions
are all you can specify in Stacker. Definitions are read left to right.
Immediately after the semi-colon comes the name of the word being defined.
The remaining words in the definition specify what the word does.</p>
</div>
<!-- ======================================================================= -->
<div class="doc_subsection"><a name="literals"></a>Literals</div>
<div class="doc_text">
<p>There are three kinds of literal values in Stacker. Integer, Strings,
and Booleans. In each case, the stack operation is to simply push the
value onto the stack. So, for example:<br/>
<code> 42 " is the answer." TRUE </code><br/>
will push three values onto the stack: the integer 42, the
string " is the answer." and the boolean TRUE.</p>
</div>
<!-- ======================================================================= -->
<div class="doc_subsection"><a name="words"></a>Words</div>
<div class="doc_text">
<p>Each definition in Stacker is composed of a set of words. Words are
read and executed in order from left to right. There is very little
checking in Stacker to make sure you're doing the right thing with
the stack. It is assumed that the programmer knows how the stack
transformation he applies will affect the program.</p>
<p>Words in a definition come in two flavors: built-in and programmer
defined. Simply mentioning the name of a previously defined or declared
programmer-defined word causes that words definition to be invoked. It
is somewhat like a function call in other languages. The built-in
words have various effects, described below.</p>
<p>Sometimes you need to call a word before it is defined. For this, you can
use the <code>FORWARD</code> declaration. It looks like this</p>
<p><code>FORWARD name ;</code></p>
<p>This simply states to Stacker that "name" is the name of a definition
that is defined elsewhere. Generally it means the definition can be found
"forward" in the file. But, it doesn't have to be in the current compilation
unit. Anything declared with <code>FORWARD</code> is an external symbol for
linking.</p>
</div>
<!-- ======================================================================= -->
<div class="doc_subsection"><a name="builtins"></a>Built In Words</div>
<div class="doc_text">
<p>The built-in words of the Stacker language are put in several groups
depending on what they do. The groups are as follows:</p>
<ol>
<li><em>Logical</em>These words provide the logical operations for
comparing stack operands.<br/>The words are: < > <= >=
= <> true false.</li>
<li><em>Bitwise</em>These words perform bitwise computations on
their operands. <br/> The words are: << >> XOR AND NOT</li>
<li><em>Arithmetic</em>These words perform arithmetic computations on
their operands. <br/> The words are: ABS NEG + - * / MOD */ ++ -- MIN MAX</li>
<li><em>Stack</em>These words manipulate the stack directly by moving
its elements around.<br/> The words are: DROP DUP SWAP OVER ROT DUP2 DROP2 PICK TUCK</li>
<li><em>Memory></em>These words allocate, free and manipulate memory
areas outside the stack.<br/>The words are: MALLOC FREE GET PUT</li>
<li><em>Control</em>These words alter the normal left to right flow
of execution.<br/>The words are: IF ELSE ENDIF WHILE END RETURN EXIT RECURSE</li>
<li><em>I/O</em> These words perform output on the standard output
and input on the standard input. No other I/O is possible in Stacker.
<br/>The words are: SPACE TAB CR >s >d >c <s <d <c.</li>
</ol>
<p>While you may be familiar with many of these operations from other
programming languages, a careful review of their semantics is important
for correct programming in Stacker. Of most importance is the effect
that each of these built-in words has on the global stack. The effect is
not always intuitive. To better describe the effects, we'll borrow from Forth the idiom of
describing the effect on the stack with:</p>
<p><code> BEFORE -- AFTER </code></p>
<p>That is, to the left of the -- is a representation of the stack before
the operation. To the right of the -- is a representation of the stack
after the operation. In the table below that describes the operation of
each of the built in words, we will denote the elements of the stack
using the following construction:</p>
<ol>
<li><em>b</em> - a boolean truth value</li>
<li><em>w</em> - a normal integer valued word.</li>
<li><em>s</em> - a pointer to a string value</li>
<li><em>p</em> - a pointer to a malloc's memory block</li>
</ol>
</div>
<div class="doc_text">
<table class="doc_table" >
<tr class="doc_table"><td colspan="4">Definition Of Operation Of Built In Words</td></tr>
<tr class="doc_table"><td colspan="4">LOGICAL OPERATIONS</td></tr>
<tr class="doc_table"><td>Word</td><td>Name</td><td>Operation</td><td>Description</td></tr>
<tr class="doc_table"><td><</td>
<td>LT</td>
<td>w1 w2 -- b</td>
<td>Two values (w1 and w2) are popped off the stack and
compared. If w1 is less than w2, TRUE is pushed back on
the stack, otherwise FALSE is pushed back on the stack.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>></td>
<td>GT</td>
<td>w1 w2 -- b</td>
<td>Two values (w1 and w2) are popped off the stack and
compared. If w1 is greater than w2, TRUE is pushed back on
the stack, otherwise FALSE is pushed back on the stack.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>>=</td>
<td>GE</td>
<td>w1 w2 -- b</td>
<td>Two values (w1 and w2) are popped off the stack and
compared. If w1 is greater than or equal to w2, TRUE is
pushed back on the stack, otherwise FALSE is pushed back
on the stack.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><=</td>
<td>LE</td>
<td>w1 w2 -- b</td>
<td>Two values (w1 and w2) are popped off the stack and
compared. If w1 is less than or equal to w2, TRUE is
pushed back on the stack, otherwise FALSE is pushed back
on the stack.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>=</td>
<td>EQ</td>
<td>w1 w2 -- b</td>
<td>Two values (w1 and w2) are popped off the stack and
compared. If w1 is equal to w2, TRUE is
pushed back on the stack, otherwise FALSE is pushed back
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><></td>
<td>NE</td>
<td>w1 w2 -- b</td>
<td>Two values (w1 and w2) are popped off the stack and
compared. If w1 is equal to w2, TRUE is
pushed back on the stack, otherwise FALSE is pushed back
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>FALSE</td>
<td>FALSE</td>
<td> -- b</td>
<td>The boolean value FALSE (0) is pushed onto the stack.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>TRUE</td>
<td>TRUE</td>
<td> -- b</td>
<td>The boolean value TRUE (-1) is pushed onto the stack.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td colspan="4">BITWISE OPERATIONS</td></tr>
<tr><td>Word</td><td>Name</td><td>Operation</td><td>Description</td></tr>
<tr><td><<</td>
<td>SHL</td>
<td>w1 w2 -- w1<<w2</td>
<td>Two values (w1 and w2) are popped off the stack. The w2
operand is shifted left by the number of bits given by the
w1 operand. The result is pushed back to the stack.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>>></td>
<td>SHR</td>
<td>w1 w2 -- w1>>w2</td>
<td>Two values (w1 and w2) are popped off the stack. The w2
operand is shifted right by the number of bits given by the
w1 operand. The result is pushed back to the stack.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>OR</td>
<td>OR</td>
<td>w1 w2 -- w2|w1</td>
<td>Two values (w1 and w2) are popped off the stack. The values
are bitwise OR'd together and pushed back on the stack. This is
not a logical OR. The sequence 1 2 OR yields 3 not 1.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>AND</td>
<td>AND</td>
<td>w1 w2 -- w2&w1</td>
<td>Two values (w1 and w2) are popped off the stack. The values
are bitwise AND'd together and pushed back on the stack. This is
not a logical AND. The sequence 1 2 AND yields 0 not 1.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>XOR</td>
<td>XOR</td>
<td>w1 w2 -- w2^w1</td>
<td>Two values (w1 and w2) are popped off the stack. The values
are bitwise exclusive OR'd together and pushed back on the stack.
For example, The sequence 1 3 XOR yields 2.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td colspan="4">ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS</td></tr>
<tr><td>Word</td><td>Name</td><td>Operation</td><td>Description</td></tr>
<tr><td>ABS</td>
<td>ABS</td>
<td>w -- |w|</td>
<td>One value s popped off the stack; its absolute value is computed
and then pushed onto the stack. If w1 is -1 then w2 is 1. If w1 is
1 then w2 is also 1.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>NEG</td>
<td>NEG</td>
<td>w -- -w</td>
<td>One value is popped off the stack which is negated and then
pushed back onto the stack. If w1 is -1 then w2 is 1. If w1 is
1 then w2 is -1.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td> + </td>
<td>ADD</td>
<td>w1 w2 -- w2+w1</td>
<td>Two values are popped off the stack. Their sum is pushed back
onto the stack</td>
</tr>
<tr><td> - </td>
<td>SUB</td>
<td>w1 w2 -- w2-w1</td>
<td>Two values are popped off the stack. Their difference is pushed back
onto the stack</td>
</tr>
<tr><td> * </td>
<td>MUL</td>
<td>w1 w2 -- w2*w1</td>
<td>Two values are popped off the stack. Their product is pushed back
onto the stack</td>
</tr>
<tr><td> / </td>
<td>DIV</td>
<td>w1 w2 -- w2/w1</td>
<td>Two values are popped off the stack. Their quotient is pushed back
onto the stack</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>MOD</td>
<td>MOD</td>
<td>w1 w2 -- w2%w1</td>
<td>Two values are popped off the stack. Their remainder after division
of w1 by w2 is pushed back onto the stack</td>
</tr>
<tr><td> */ </td>
<td>STAR_SLAH</td>
<td>w1 w2 w3 -- (w3*w2)/w1</td>
<td>Three values are popped off the stack. The product of w1 and w2 is
divided by w3. The result is pushed back onto the stack.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td> ++ </td>
<td>INCR</td>
<td>w -- w+1</td>
<td>One value is popped off the stack. It is incremented by one and then
pushed back onto the stack.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td> -- </td>
<td>DECR</td>
<td>w -- w-1</td>
<td>One value is popped off the stack. It is decremented by one and then
pushed back onto the stack.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>MIN</td>
<td>MIN</td>
<td>w1 w2 -- (w2<w1?w2:w1)</td>
<td>Two values are popped off the stack. The larger one is pushed back
onto the stack.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>MAX</td>
<td>MAX</td>
<td>w1 w2 -- (w2>w1?w2:w1)</td>
<td>Two values are popped off the stack. The larger value is pushed back
onto the stack.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td colspan="4">STACK MANIPULATION OPERATIONS</td></tr>
<tr><td>Word</td><td>Name</td><td>Operation</td><td>Description</td></tr>
<tr><td>DROP</td>
<td>DROP</td>
<td>w -- </td>
<td>One value is popped off the stack.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DROP2</td>
<td>DROP2</td>
<td>w1 w2 -- </td>
<td>Two values are popped off the stack.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>NIP</td>
<td>NIP</td>
<td>w1 w2 -- w2</td>
<td>The second value on the stack is removed from the stack. That is,
a value is popped off the stack and retained. Then a second value is
popped and the retained value is pushed.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>NIP2</td>
<td>NIP2</td>
<td>w1 w2 w3 w4 -- w3 w4</td>
<td>The third and fourth values on the stack are removed from it. That is,
two values are popped and retained. Then two more values are popped and
the two retained values are pushed back on.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DUP</td>
<td>DUP</td>
<td>w1 -- w1 w1</td>
<td>One value is popped off the stack. That value is then pushed onto
the stack twice to duplicate the top stack vaue.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DUP2</td>
<td>DUP2</td>
<td>w1 w2 -- w1 w2 w1 w2</td>
<td>The top two values on the stack are duplicated. That is, two vaues
are popped off the stack. They are alternately pushed back on the
stack twice each.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>SWAP</td>
<td>SWAP</td>
<td>w1 w2 -- w2 w1</td>
<td>The top two stack items are reversed in their order. That is, two
values are popped off the stack and pushed back onto the stack in
the opposite order they were popped.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>SWAP2</td>
<td>SWAP2</td>
<td>w1 w2 w3 w4 -- w3 w4 w2 w1</td>
<td>The top four stack items are swapped in pairs. That is, two values
are popped and retained. Then, two more values are popped and retained.
The values are pushed back onto the stack in the reverse order but
in pairs.</p>
</tr>
<tr><td>OVER</td>
<td>OVER</td>
<td>w1 w2-- w1 w2 w1</td>
<td>Two values are popped from the stack. They are pushed back
onto the stack in the order w1 w2 w1. This seems to cause the
top stack element to be duplicated "over" the next value.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>OVER2</td>
<td>OVER2</td>
<td>w1 w2 w3 w4 -- w1 w2 w3 w4 w1 w2</td>
<td>The third and fourth values on the stack are replicated onto the
top of the stack</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ROT</td>
<td>ROT</td>
<td>w1 w2 w3 -- w2 w3 w1</td>
<td>The top three values are rotated. That is, three value are popped
off the stack. They are pushed back onto the stack in the order
w1 w3 w2.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ROT2</td>
<td>ROT2</td>
<td>w1 w2 w3 w4 w5 w6 -- w3 w4 w5 w6 w1 w2</td>
<td>Like ROT but the rotation is done using three pairs instead of
three singles.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>RROT</td>
<td>RROT</td>
<td>w1 w2 w3 -- w2 w3 w1</td>
<td>Reverse rotation. Like ROT, but it rotates the other way around.
Essentially, the third element on the stack is moved to the top
of the stack.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>RROT2</td>
<td>RROT2</td>
<td>w1 w2 w3 w4 w5 w6 -- w3 w4 w5 w6 w1 w2</td>
<td>Double reverse rotation. Like RROT but the rotation is done using
three pairs instead of three singles. The fifth and sixth stack
elements are moved to the first and second positions</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>TUCK</td>
<td>TUCK</td>
<td>w1 w2 -- w2 w1 w2</td>
<td>Similar to OVER except that the second operand is being
replicated. Essentially, the first operand is being "tucked"
in between two instances of the second operand. Logically, two
values are popped off the stack. They are placed back on the
stack in the order w2 w1 w2.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>TUCK2</td>
<td>TUCK2</td>
<td>w1 w2 w3 w4 -- w3 w4 w1 w2 w3 w4</td>
<td>Like TUCK but a pair of elements is tucked over two pairs.
That is, the top two elements of the stack are duplicated and
inserted into the stack at the fifth and positions.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>PICK</td>
<td>PICK</td>
<td>x0 ... Xn n -- x0 ... Xn x0</td>
<td>The top of the stack is used as an index into the remainder of
the stack. The element at the nth position replaces the index
(top of stack). This is useful for cycling through a set of
values. Note that indexing is zero based. So, if n=0 then you
get the second item on the stack. If n=1 you get the third, etc.
Note also that the index is replaced by the n'th value. </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>SELECT</td>
<td>SELECT</td>
<td>m n X0..Xm Xm+1 .. Xn -- Xm</td>
<td>This is like PICK but the list is removed and you need to specify
both the index and the size of the list. Careful with this one,
the wrong value for n can blow away a huge amount of the stack.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ROLL</td>
<td>ROLL</td>
<td>x0 x1 .. xn n -- x1 .. xn x0</td>
<td><b>Not Implemented</b>. This one has been left as an exercise to
the student. If you can implement this one you understand Stacker
and probably a fair amount about LLVM since this is one of the
more complicated Stacker operations. See the StackerCompiler.cpp
file in the projects/Stacker/lib/compiler directory. The operation
of ROLL is like a generalized ROT. That is ROLL with n=1 is the
same as ROT. The n value (top of stack) is used as an index to
select a value up the stack that is <em>moved</em> to the top of
the stack. See the implementations of PICk and SELECT to get
some hints.<p>
</tr>
<tr><td colspan="4">MEMORY OPERATIONS</td></tr>
<tr><td>Word</td><td>Name</td><td>Operation</td><td>Description</td></tr>
<tr><td>MALLOC</td>
<td>MALLOC</td>
<td>w1 -- p</td>
<td>One value is popped off the stack. The value is used as the size
of a memory block to allocate. The size is in bytes, not words.
The memory allocation is completed and the address of the memory
block is pushed onto the stack.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>FREE</td>
<td>FREE</td>
<td>p -- </td>
<td>One pointer value is popped off the stack. The value should be
the address of a memory block created by the MALLOC operation. The
associated memory block is freed. Nothing is pushed back on the
stack. Many bugs can be created by attempting to FREE something
that isn't a pointer to a MALLOC allocated memory block. Make
sure you know what's on the stack. One way to do this is with
the following idiom:<br/>
<code>64 MALLOC DUP DUP (use ptr) DUP (use ptr) ... FREE</code>
<br/>This ensures that an extra copy of the pointer is placed on
the stack (for the FREE at the end) and that every use of the
pointer is preceded by a DUP to retain the copy for FREE.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>GET</td>
<td>GET</td>
<td>w1 p -- w2 p</td>
<td>An integer index and a pointer to a memory block are popped of
the block. The index is used to index one byte from the memory
block. That byte value is retained, the pointer is pushed again
and the retained value is pushed. Note that the pointer value
s essentially retained in its position so this doesn't count
as a "use ptr" in the FREE idiom.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>PUT</td>
<td>PUT</td>
<td>w1 w2 p -- p </td>
<td>An integer value is popped of the stack. This is the value to
be put into a memory block. Another integer value is popped of
the stack. This is the indexed byte in the memory block. A
pointer to the memory block is popped off the stack. The
first value (w1) is then converted to a byte and written
to the element of the memory block(p) at the index given
by the second value (w2). The pointer to the memory block is
pushed back on the stack so this doesn't count as a "use ptr"
in the FREE idiom.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td colspan="4">CONTROL FLOW OPERATIONS</td></tr>
<tr><td>Word</td><td>Name</td><td>Operation</td><td>Description</td></tr>
<tr><td>RETURN</td>
<td>RETURN</td>
<td> -- </td>
<td>The currently executing definition returns immediately to its caller.
Note that there is an implicit <code>RETURN</code> at the end of each
definition, logically located at the semi-colon. The sequence
<code>RETURN ;</code> is valid but redundant.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>EXIT</td>
<td>EXIT</td>
<td>w1 -- </td>
<td>A return value for the program is popped off the stack. The program is
then immediately terminated. This is normally an abnormal exit from the
program. For a normal exit (when <code>MAIN</code> finishes), the exit
code will always be zero in accordance with UNIX conventions.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>RECURSE</td>
<td>RECURSE</td>
<td> -- </td>
<td>The currently executed definition is called again. This operation is
needed since the definition of a word doesn't exist until the semi colon
is reacher. Attempting something like:<br/>
<code> : recurser recurser ; </code><br/> will yield and error saying that
"recurser" is not defined yet. To accomplish the same thing, change this
to:<br/>
<code> : recurser RECURSE ; </code></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>IF (words...) ENDIF</td>
<td>IF (words...) ENDIF</td>
<td>b -- </td>
<td>A boolean value is popped of the stack. If it is non-zero then the "words..."
are executed. Otherwise, execution continues immediately following the ENDIF.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>IF (words...) ELSE (words...) ENDIF</td>
<td>IF (words...) ELSE (words...) ENDIF</td>
<td>b -- </td>
<td>A boolean value is popped of the stack. If it is non-zero then the "words..."
between IF and ELSE are executed. Otherwise the words between ELSE and ENDIF are
executed. In either case, after the (words....) have executed, execution continues
immediately following the ENDIF. </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>WHILE (words...) END</td>
<td>WHILE (words...) END</td>
<td>b -- b </td>
<td>The boolean value on the top of the stack is examined. If it is non-zero then the
"words..." between WHILE and END are executed. Execution then begins again at the WHILE where another
boolean is popped off the stack. To prevent this operation from eating up the entire
stack, you should push onto the stack (just before the END) a boolean value that indicates
whether to terminate. Note that since booleans and integers can be coerced you can
use the following "for loop" idiom:<br/>
<code>(push count) WHILE (words...) -- END</code><br/>
For example:<br/>
<code>10 WHILE DUP >d -- END</code><br/>
This will print the numbers from 10 down to 1. 10 is pushed on the stack. Since that is
non-zero, the while loop is entered. The top of the stack (10) is duplicated and then
printed out with >d. The top of the stack is decremented, yielding 9 and control is
transfered back to the WHILE keyword. The process starts all over again and repeats until
the top of stack is decremented to 0 at which the WHILE test fails and control is
transfered to the word after the END.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td colspan="4">INPUT & OUTPUT OPERATIONS</td></tr>
<tr><td>Word</td><td>Name</td><td>Operation</td><td>Description</td></tr>
<tr><td>SPACE</td>
<td>SPACE</td>
<td> -- </td>
<td>A space character is put out. There is no stack effect.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>TAB</td>
<td>TAB</td>
<td> -- </td>
<td>A tab character is put out. There is no stack effect.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>CR</td>
<td>CR</td>
<td> -- </td>
<td>A carriage return character is put out. There is no stack effect.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>>s</td>
<td>OUT_STR</td>
<td> -- </td>
<td>A string pointer is popped from the stack. It is put out.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>>d</td>
<td>OUT_STR</td>
<td> -- </td>
<td>A value is popped from the stack. It is put out as a decimal integer.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>>c</td>
<td>OUT_CHR</td>
<td> -- </td>
<td>A value is popped from the stack. It is put out as an ASCII character.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><s</td>
<td>IN_STR</td>
<td> -- s </td>
<td>A string is read from the input via the scanf(3) format string " %as". The
resulting string is pushed onto the stack.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><d</td>
<td>IN_STR</td>
<td> -- w </td>
<td>An integer is read from the input via the scanf(3) format string " %d". The
resulting value is pushed onto the stack</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><c</td>
<td>IN_CHR</td>
<td> -- w </td>
<td>A single character is read from the input via the scanf(3) format string
" %c". The value is converted to an integer and pushed onto the stack.</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DUMP</td>
<td>DUMP</td>
<td> -- </td>
<td>The stack contents are dumped to standard output. This is useful for
debugging your definitions. Put DUMP at the beginning and end of a definition
to see instantly the net effect of the definition.</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<!-- ======================================================================= -->
<div class="doc_section"> <a name="directory">Directory Structure</a></div>
<div class="doc_text">
<p>The source code, test programs, and sample programs can all be found
under the LLVM "projects" directory. You will need to obtain the LLVM sources
to find it (either via anonymous CVS or a tarball. See the
<a href="GettingStarted.html">Getting Started</a> document).</p>
<p>Under the "projects" directory there is a directory named "stacker". That
directory contains everything, as follows:</p>
<ul>
<li><em>lib</em> - contains most of the source code
<ul>
<li><em>lib/compiler</em> - contains the compiler library
<li><em>lib/runtime</em> - contains the runtime library
</ul></li>
<li><em>test</em> - contains the test programs</li>
<li><em>tools</em> - contains the Stacker compiler main program, stkrc
<ul>
<li><em>lib/stkrc</em> - contains the Stacker compiler main program
</ul</li>
<li><em>sample</em> - contains the sample programs</li>
</ul>
</div>
<!-- ======================================================================= -->
<div class="doc_section"> <a name="directory">Prime: A Complete Example</a></div>
<div class="doc_text">
<p>The following fully documented program highlights many of features of both
the Stacker language and what is possible with LLVM. The program simply
prints out the prime numbers until it reaches
</p>
</div>
<div class="doc_text">
<p><code>
<![CDATA[
################################################################################
#
# Brute force prime number generator
#
# This program is written in classic Stacker style, that being the style of a
# stack. Start at the bottom and read your way up !
#
# Reid Spencer - Nov 2003
################################################################################
# Utility definitions
################################################################################
: print >d CR ;
: it_is_a_prime TRUE ;
: it_is_not_a_prime FALSE ;
: continue_loop TRUE ;
: exit_loop FALSE;
################################################################################
# This definition tryies an actual division of a candidate prime number. It
# determines whether the division loop on this candidate should continue or
# not.
# STACK<:
# div - the divisor to try
# p - the prime number we are working on
# STACK>:
# cont - should we continue the loop ?
# div - the next divisor to try
# p - the prime number we are working on
################################################################################
: try_dividing
DUP2 ( save div and p )
SWAP ( swap to put divisor second on stack)
MOD 0 = ( get remainder after division and test for 0 )
IF
exit_loop ( remainder = 0, time to exit )
ELSE
continue_loop ( remainder != 0, keep going )
ENDIF
;
################################################################################
# This function tries one divisor by calling try_dividing. But, before doing
# that it checks to see if the value is 1. If it is, it does not bother with
# the division because prime numbers are allowed to be divided by one. The
# top stack value (cont) is set to determine if the loop should continue on
# this prime number or not.
# STACK<:
# cont - should we continue the loop (ignored)?
# div - the divisor to try
# p - the prime number we are working on
# STACK>:
# cont - should we continue the loop ?
# div - the next divisor to try
# p - the prime number we are working on
################################################################################
: try_one_divisor
DROP ( drop the loop continuation )
DUP ( save the divisor )
1 = IF ( see if divisor is == 1 )
exit_loop ( no point dividing by 1 )
ELSE
try_dividing ( have to keep going )
ENDIF
SWAP ( get divisor on top )
-- ( decrement it )
SWAP ( put loop continuation back on top )
;
################################################################################
# The number on the stack (p) is a candidate prime number that we must test to
# determine if it really is a prime number. To do this, we divide it by every
# number from one p-1 to 1. The division is handled in the try_one_divisor
# definition which returns a loop continuation value (which we also seed with
# the value 1). After the loop, we check the divisor. If it decremented all
# the way to zero then we found a prime, otherwise we did not find one.
# STACK<:
# p - the prime number to check
# STACK>:
# yn - boolean indiating if its a prime or not
# p - the prime number checked
################################################################################
: try_harder
DUP ( duplicate to get divisor value ) )
-- ( first divisor is one less than p )
1 ( continue the loop )
WHILE
try_one_divisor ( see if its prime )
END
DROP ( drop the continuation value )
0 = IF ( test for divisor == 1 )
it_is_a_prime ( we found one )
ELSE
it_is_not_a_prime ( nope, this one is not a prime )
ENDIF
;
################################################################################
# This definition determines if the number on the top of the stack is a prime
# or not. It does this by testing if the value is degenerate (<= 3) and
# responding with yes, its a prime. Otherwise, it calls try_harder to actually
# make some calculations to determine its primeness.
# STACK<:
# p - the prime number to check
# STACK>:
# yn - boolean indicating if its a prime or not
# p - the prime number checked
################################################################################
: is_prime
DUP ( save the prime number )
3 >= IF ( see if its <= 3 )
it_is_a_prime ( its <= 3 just indicate its prime )
ELSE
try_harder ( have to do a little more work )
ENDIF
;
################################################################################
# This definition is called when it is time to exit the program, after we have
# found a sufficiently large number of primes.
# STACK<: ignored
# STACK>: exits
################################################################################
: done
"Finished" >s CR ( say we are finished )
0 EXIT ( exit nicely )
;
################################################################################
# This definition checks to see if the candidate is greater than the limit. If
# it is, it terminates the program by calling done. Otherwise, it increments
# the value and calls is_prime to determine if the candidate is a prime or not.
# If it is a prime, it prints it. Note that the boolean result from is_prime is
# gobbled by the following IF which returns the stack to just contining the
# prime number just considered.
# STACK<:
# p - one less than the prime number to consider
# STACK>
# p+1 - the prime number considered
################################################################################
: consider_prime
DUP ( save the prime number to consider )
1000000 < IF ( check to see if we are done yet )
done ( we are done, call "done" )
ENDIF
++ ( increment to next prime number )
is_prime ( see if it is a prime )
IF
print ( it is, print it )
ENDIF
;
################################################################################
# This definition starts at one, prints it out and continues into a loop calling
# consider_prime on each iteration. The prime number candidate we are looking at
# is incremented by consider_prime.
# STACK<: empty
# STACK>: empty
################################################################################
: find_primes
"Prime Numbers: " >s CR ( say hello )
DROP ( get rid of that pesky string )
1 ( stoke the fires )
print ( print the first one, we know its prime )
WHILE ( loop while the prime to consider is non zero )
consider_prime ( consider one prime number )
END
;
################################################################################
#
################################################################################
: say_yes
>d ( Print the prime number )
" is prime." ( push string to output )
>s ( output it )
CR ( print carriage return )
DROP ( pop string )
;
: say_no
>d ( Print the prime number )
" is NOT prime." ( push string to put out )
>s ( put out the string )
CR ( print carriage return )
DROP ( pop string )
;
################################################################################
# This definition processes a single command line argument and determines if it
# is a prime number or not.
# STACK<:
# n - number of arguments
# arg1 - the prime numbers to examine
# STACK>:
# n-1 - one less than number of arguments
# arg2 - we processed one argument
################################################################################
: do_one_argument
-- ( decrement loop counter )
SWAP ( get the argument value )
is_prime IF ( determine if its prime )
say_yes ( uhuh )
ELSE
say_no ( nope )
ENDIF
DROP ( done with that argument )
;
################################################################################
# The MAIN program just prints a banner and processes its arguments.
# STACK<:
# n - number of arguments
# ... - the arguments
################################################################################
: process_arguments
WHILE ( while there are more arguments )
do_one_argument ( process one argument )
END
;
################################################################################
# The MAIN program just prints a banner and processes its arguments.
# STACK<: arguments
################################################################################
: MAIN
NIP ( get rid of the program name )
-- ( reduce number of arguments )
DUP ( save the arg counter )
1 <= IF ( See if we got an argument )
process_arguments ( tell user if they are prime )
ELSE
find_primes ( see how many we can find )
ENDIF
0 ( push return code )
;
]]>
</code>
</p>
</div>
<!-- ======================================================================= -->
<div class="doc_section"> <a name="lexicon">Internals</a></div>
<div class="doc_text"><p>To be completed.</p></div>
<div class="doc_subsection"><a name="stack"></a>The Lexer</div>
<div class="doc_subsection"><a name="stack"></a>The Parser</div>
<div class="doc_subsection"><a name="stack"></a>The Compiler</div>
<div class="doc_subsection"><a name="stack"></a>The Stack</div>
<div class="doc_subsection"><a name="stack"></a>Definitions Are Functions</div>
<div class="doc_subsection"><a name="stack"></a>Words Are BasicBlocks</div>
<!-- ======================================================================= -->
<hr>
<div class="doc_footer">
<address><a href="mailto:rspencer@x10sys.com">Reid Spencer</a></address>
<a href="http://llvm.cs.uiuc.edu">The LLVM Compiler Infrastructure</a>
<br>Last modified: $Date$ </div>
</body>
</html>
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